Newspaper clippings, magazine articles, biographical accounts, transcripts of interviews, almanac and encyclopedia entries, textbook passages, official documents, excerpts from world literature....

That's just a sampling of the reading materials that social studies teachers in the USA bring to their students' attention on a daily basis. Generally speaking, teachers have a particular "content goal" when they assign such items. Perhaps this World History teacher wants her students to read an account of why the euro was adopted. Or that World Regions teacher may want his class to understand the main influences in Brunei's cultural history.

In the eyes of professional reading educators, however, achieving the content goal of any such reading assignment might not be enough. They would want students to demonstrate a deeper grasp of that article, transcript, or document. Specifically, they would want to be sure that students handling any reading assignment can

1. decode its particular vocabulary;
2. grasp its main idea, or overall meaning;
3. analyze how the author built or developed that meaning;
4. evaluate the item as a source of information and new questions.

MERGING GOALS (WITH HELP FROM LE!)
The fact is, the approaches of both disciplines are complementary. And, in these days of heightened public attention to students' reading skills in all the content areas, they are rapidly converging. Social studies teachers are paying more and more attention to the goals of reading education, as well as to their own curriculum guidelines. And Learning Enrichment (LE) is committed to helping them achieve both:

• On LE's student text pages, key social studies terms are defined — explicitly or through context clues. And all challenging vocabulary terms are listed for preview purposes in the "Critical Terms" segment on each Teacher Page.
• "Main-idea" questions appear at the beginning of some LE student pages. (See, for example, LE's "And Now...." units.) Questions calling for student application, analysis, or evaluation appear at the end of others. (See the "Widening Circles" units.) And additional suggestions for analysis- and evaluation-type questions pepper the Teacher Pages on LE's Web Site.
• Beginning with LE's "China" and "Germany" units in 2003, LE will be adding a "Social Studies Reading Skills" segment to the Teacher Pages for its online high school study units. This new segment will build upon the goals and strategies outlined below.

A FEW BASIC NOTIONS
START-UP STRATEGIES
TIPS FOR DURING OR AFTER READING
POST-READING REVIEW
NEW!!! LE UNITS WITH SEGMENTS ON SOCIAL STUDIES READING SKILLS

A FEW BASIC NOTIONS
There's a great deal of fresh material on how to help students develop reading skills in the content areas. Just enter the terms "reading" and "social studies," without the quote marks, in Google's Internet Search box! Alternatively, the following examples may serve as jumping-off points for your own investigation of the topic. (Note: Throughout this page, the term "argument" refers to the way an author structures or develops his or her written product.)

Adapting Bloom's Taxonomy. In a sense, the four reading goals stated above parallel the six competencies in Bloom's Taxonomy of cognitive skills — a long-time favorite of social studies educators. From least to most complex, those competencies are knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. For tips on how to facilitate these competencies when questioning students about what they've read, enter the terms "Bloom's Taxonomy" and "sample verbs" in any Internet Search box. You'll find links to any number of recommendations (for example, using "paraphrase" when you want to test students' comprehension of a writer's argument or "defend" when you want them to evaluate it). LE's search pulled up an excellent list at the Web-Site Page developed by Dr. William Huitt of Valdosta State University, Georgia.

Using "academic" vocabulary. Addressing teachers of English Language Learners (ELLs) in the Spring 1994 issue of Forum, Deborah J. Short made an observation that is probably valid for all students in all content areas: "A prerequisite to developing integrated language and content lessons is an understanding of the academic language competencies ... [that students need, in order] to function successfully...." Short identified four types of vocabulary that social studies students regularly encounter: terms associated with instructional, or directional, tools ("north," "below,"); concrete terms ("Stamp Act"); conceptual terms ("democracy," "taxation"); and functional terms (such as a request to accurately "sequence" a group of events). According to the author, students should not only be made conscious of these categories, they should be encouraged to employ examples from each type of vocabulary in their classroom discussions.

Prepping the college-bound. For social studies teachers whose students are approaching college-placement or other standardized exams, here's one clue to the type of reading skills they may be tested on, within each content area. In 2003, the publisher of the American College Test (ACT) identified eight "reasoning and referring skills" needed by students taking the ACT Reading Test. The eight skills? Students should be able to

"determine main ideas; locate and interpret significant details; understand sequences of events; make comparisons; comprehend cause-effect relationships; determine the meaning of context-dependent words, phrases, and statements; draw generalizations; and analyze the author's or narrator's voice and method." (Emphasis added by LE.)

START-UP STRATEGIES
LE's new Social Studies Reading Skills segments will offer tips for helping students develop such reading skills as those pointed out by ACT's publisher. But first, here are a few start-up strategies aimed at preparing students for almost any social studies reading assignment.

Anticipating the main idea. When distributing a reading assignment, ask students to skim the text for a minute or so, then write a sentence in which they predict, or anticipate, the author's main idea. Encourage them to consider such clues as (a) the item's title, (b) its paragraph headings, (c) any repetition of a particular name or term, (d) any cluster of terms that might indicate the writer's focus. (Example: The terms "GDP," "exports," and "deficit" could suggest that the writer's focus is economic.) Review students' predictions, and plan to review them again in the post-reading stage. (Which skim-reading clues proved helpful? Which were not?)

Making connections. Experts suggest that, before reading, students ask, "What do I already know about this topic?" In this world of rapid change, it might be more realistic to have them ask, "What do I think I know about this topic?" Either way, starting with the feeling that a topic is familiar tends to make students more interested — and interactive — readers. A quick survey of what students think they already know about a topic may also have the benefit of exposing unconscious biases — something the social studies teacher can zoom in on, during review.

Previewing vocabulary. Rather than have students interrupt their reading to look up terms in a dictionary, give them a chance to preview an article's critical "academic terms." (See above.) To set up the preview, you might arrange to have a committee of "wordsmith" students research such definitions a day or so earlier, then post them on the chalkboard or classroom computer before the assignment begins.

Focusing on questions. The best kind of pre-reading question has to be the one that students raise about the assigned topic. Why? Curiosity will make them more attentive readers. But some teachers also prepare their own questions — a guided-reading outline, tailored to the reading material. While such guides tend to be content-oriented, they can target reading skills, too. Thus, you might ask more advanced readers to find and paraphrase the main idea of a particular paragraph or article. With less-skilled readers, you can state the main idea yourself, then ask students to identify details by which the writer supports that idea.

TIPS FOR DURING OR AFTER READING
An essential goal of reading education in the social studies must be to help students recognize the writer's style and strategies. Here are just a few guidelines for helping them do so. You may want students to be alert for these points as they read, or you may prefer to incorporate them within your post-reading review.

Ask: Whose "voice"? Whose "ears"? Encourage students to discover whose voice speaks from any printed page. Perhaps the author is a textbook editor, an international press correspondent, an expert in some field, etc. If the material is not signed, have them identify the publisher of the source in which it was found. Similarly, help them to draw inferences as to the writer's target audience. (Was this material written for the public at large? Investors in the stock market? Geography students?) Paying attention to both questions should help students, over time, to recognize and select the best types of source for various research projects.

Identify the author's style. Some writers begin with an anecdote, then explain how it does (or does not) illustrate their topic. Others set the scene for re-visiting an historic event, then focus on its chronology. Journalists may compress key information within the opening paragraph, then follow up with more details and/or with comments by experts. Invite students to speculate on what effect each approach might have on various audiences. You might even challenge students to imitate these styles in their reports.

Look for the "Five W's." Good for working with newspaper articles: Have students identify the "Who? What? Where? When? and Why?" of any major event reported by the writer.

Note comparisons, contrasts. Most students recognize the vocabulary of comparison ("better than," "third in rank," "ahead of," "behind," etc.). They'll find such terms appropriately used in reports on economic activities and political campaigns — but not so appropriately, when they pop up in discussions of peoples' cultural values. You may want to point out that statements of contrast are simply "second-stage" comparisons. The phrase "by contrast" is a signal that the writer has (a) drawn a comparison and (b) found the difference significant.

Recognize cause-effect arguments. When scientists use the terms "cause" and "effect," they tend to do so with demonstrable precision. When historians, politicians, and economists explain causal relationships within their fields of expertise, they tend to use qualifying terms. Have students develop a list of the vocabulary that such writers use when making cause-effect arguments ("as one result," "partly on account of," "helps to explain why," etc.). Tip: Because of this need for qualification, you may also prefer questions that allow students to sum up a cause-effect argument, without having to endorse it. Example: "How does the author explain the causes of globalization?" But not: "What were the causes of globalization?"

Don't over-interpret sequence. Related events that follow upon the heels of one another may be elements of a cause-effect relationship. Or they may not! When an author "chains" events ("And then.... And then.... Next.... Finally...."), prompt students to look for additional verbal clues (see above) before deciding whether this sequence of events demonstrates a true cause-effect relationship.

POST-READING REVIEW
Thus far, the tips on this page are intended to help students become focused, attentive readers. But, for the course you're teaching, some reading assignments will have more value than others, and that, in turn, will affect your choice of strategy for helping students review what they've read. Here's a short list of possibilities.

Graphics. Even after a guided reading assignment, some students may fail to grasp the author's basic argument. Here's where graphic organizers — flowcharts, outlines, and other two-dimensional figures — can help. The "ABC's of the Writing Process", for example, offers a collection of links to downloadable "spider maps," storyboards, Venn diagrams, fact-opinion charts, and dozens of similar aids. While the focus of the "ABC's" Page is on helping students develop writing skills, the tools it opens up can readily be adapted to post-reading purposes.

Paraphrasing. As soon as possible after students complete a reading assignment, ask each to paraphrase it, in writing, in about three to five sentences. Review these summaries for the purpose of developing a prototype "group" version, being sure to include references to: the topic, the author's main idea, the most critical detail(s), and any key terms that give the argument its unique quality.

Order! Order! If the author's argument depends upon a cluster of linked reasons and/or a series of logical points, you might ask readers to list the author's key points, then rank them in order of importance.... Alternatively, if knowing the chronology of events in a particular reading assignment is important, try this: Provide students with a list of 5 to 10 time-related events mentioned by the author. (Make sure the items on your list are not dated and not in chronological order.) Ask students to number each event in its correct chronological relationship to the others on the list. (Thus, the earliest could be numbered "1.")

True? False? Give students a list of 10 statements (not necessarily all true) related to the content of the reading assignment. Ask them to decide whether each statement is true or false, according to the author. Make it a requirement that, in each case, they cite the particular part of the reading assignment on which they base their answer. This approach can, of course, be adapted to help students discriminate between fact and opinion. Again, a lot of confusion can be avoided by including the phrase "according to the author" within your directions.

Larger issues. One of the most important moments in a post-reading review occurs when students "connect" the author's argument to a theme or issue in the social studies course they are taking. A class that has been studying the Cyprus Issue, for example, would see many implications in a news report that the Republic of Cyprus had been admitted as a full member by the European Union. They may also recognize new questions to research, thus building up a reserve of curiosity and reading-readiness for the next assignment!

Evaluation. Students are expected, finally, to be able to evaluate an author's "whole" argument. But the question arises: What's the "norm" for the evaluation? Here's one way to address that dilemma: Assign one of the major readings for your course. After students complete that assignment, urge them to track down and read other sources on the same topic — returning often to the "major" assignment, to reassess its accuracy, explanations, etc. Within a few weeks, it may be easier for them to weigh the article's value — and to explain their conclusions.

NEW!!! LE UNITS WITH SEGMENTS ON SOCIAL STUDIES READING SKILLS

Social Studies Reading Skills for "China: Continuing the Journey"

Social Studies Reading Skills for "And Now.... Cyprus"

Social Studies Reading Skills for "And Now.... Denmark"

Social Studies Reading Skills for "And Now.... Germany"

Social Studies Reading Skills for "Germany: Building the Future"

Social Studies Reading Skills for "Exploring the Nordic Region"

Social Studies Reading Skills for "Norway: Exploring New Horizons"

Social Studies Reading Skills for "South Korea: Shaping a New Era"

Social Studies Reading Skills for "Switzerland: Scaling the Heights"

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